Sources & References

#Scripture and translation

• The Qur’an, Arabic text: IndoPak script, Ḥafṣ ʿan ʿĀṣim reading, from the DigitalKhatt IndoPak Qur’an text (MIT licence), reproduced verbatim. Every quoted verse was checked word for word against the Arabic on dawateislami.net. Verse numbers follow the Kufan count used in most printed muṣḥafs.
• Arabic typeface: DigitalKhatt IndoPak by Amine Anane and Tarteel, based on the 13-line IndoPak muṣḥaf, SIL Open Font License 1.1.
• English translation: Kanz-ul-Iman: The Treasure of Faith, translated from the Urdu of Imam Ahmad Raza Khan into English by Mufti Abdun Nabi Hamidi (Karachi: Maktaba-tul-Madinah, 2nd publication, 2021). Words in (parentheses) are the translator’s explanatory additions. Only the verses discussed on this site are quoted.
• Verse links: every verse reference links to that verse’s page on dawateislami.net, where the same English translation can be read alongside the Arabic, with audio and commentary. The quoted verses were checked against that text.

#Hadith

Hadith are cited by collection and number following the numbering of sunnah.com, which links each to its Arabic text, translation and grading. English wording is quoted verbatim from the translations there, condensed with ellipses (…). Words in square brackets are ours.

• al-Bukhārī, al-Jāmiʿ al-Ṣaḥīḥ (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī)
• Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, al-Ṣaḥīḥ (Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim)
• Abū Dāwūd, al-Sunan; al-Tirmidhī, al-Jāmiʿ; Ibn Mājah, al-Sunan. Gradings are stated on each hadith.

#Qur’anic commentary and classical works

• al-Ṭabarī, Jāmiʿ al-Bayān ʿan Taʾwīl Āy al-Qurʾān
• al-Qurṭubī, al-Jāmiʿ li-Aḥkām al-Qurʾān
• Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Mafātīḥ al-Ghayb (al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr), including the commentary on 1:2 (many worlds) and 2:22 (the Earth as a “bed” and a sphere)
• Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm, including 18:25, 21:30, 51:47, 55:17 (English abridgement consulted: Darussalam, 2000)
• al-Ghazālī, al-Munqidh min al-Ḍalāl, tr. Richard J. McCarthy in Freedom and Fulfillment (Boston: Twayne, 1980); also tr. W. Montgomery Watt in The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazālī (London: Allen & Unwin, 1953)
• Ibn al-Haytham, al-Shukūk ʿalā Baṭlamyūs (Doubts concerning Ptolemy)
• Abū Nuʿaym al-Iṣfahānī, Ḥilyat al-Awliyāʾ (ʿAlī’s counsel to Kumayl)
• Imam Ahmad Raza Khan, Fauz-e-Mubeen dar Radd-e-Harkat-e-Zameen (1919), English rendering by Abdul Hamid Maiskar, A Fair Success Refuting Motion of Earth (Karachi: Idara-e-Tahqiqat-e-Imam Ahmad Raza, 2005), Internet Archive. Also Muʿīn-e-Mubīn and Nuzūl-e-Āyāt-e-Furqān (1919–1920).

#Cosmology and astronomy

• Friedmann, A. (1922). Über die Krümmung des Raumes. Zeitschrift für Physik 10, 377–386.
• Lemaître, G. (1927). Un univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant… Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles A47, 49–59.
• Hubble, E. (1929). A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae. PNAS 15, 168–173.
• Penzias, A. A. & Wilson, R. W. (1965). A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s. Astrophysical Journal 142, 419–421.
• Hawking, S. W. & Penrose, R. (1970). The singularities of gravitational collapse and cosmology. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 314, 529–548.
• Riess, A. G. et al. (1998), Astronomical Journal 116, 1009; Perlmutter, S. et al. (1999), Astrophysical Journal 517, 565. The accelerating universe.
• Planck Collaboration (2020). Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters. Astronomy & Astrophysics 641, A6.
• Burbidge, E. M., Burbidge, G. R., Fowler, W. A. & Hoyle, F. (1957). Synthesis of the elements in stars. Reviews of Modern Physics 29, 547–650.
• Abbott, B. P. et al. (LIGO/Virgo) (2016). Observation of gravitational waves from a binary black hole merger. Physical Review Letters 116, 061102.
• Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration (2019), ApJ Letters 875, L1 (M87*); (2022), ApJ Letters 930, L12 (Sgr A*).
• Bradley, J. (1729). An account of a new discovered motion of the fixed stars. Philosophical Transactions 35, 637–661.
• Bessel, F. W. (1838). Parallax of 61 Cygni. Astronomische Nachrichten 16.
• Joyce, M. et al. (2020). Standing on the shoulders of giants: new mass and distance estimates for Betelgeuse. Astrophysical Journal 902, 63.
• NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive, planetary and lunar fact sheets (nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov).

#Physics and mathematics

• Einstein, A. (1905). Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper. Annalen der Physik 17, 891–921. (1915–16) general relativity papers.
• Hafele, J. C. & Keating, R. E. (1972). Around-the-world atomic clocks: predicted relativistic time gains; observed relativistic time gains. Science 177, 166–168 and 168–170.
• Ashby, N. (2003). Relativity in the Global Positioning System. Living Reviews in Relativity 6, 1.
• Rees, M. (1999). Just Six Numbers: The Deep Forces That Shape the Universe. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
• Wigner, E. (1960). The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences. Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics 13, 1–14.
• Word and letter counts on this site were computed directly from the standard Arabic text (the Tanzil Uthmani edition of the same Ḥafṣ reading). Script style does not change which words are present. The counting rules are stated where used.

#Earth science and biology

• Airy, G. B. (1855) and Pratt, J. H. (1855). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 145, on the attraction of the Himalaya and isostasy.
• Ekman, V. W. (1904). On dead water. The Norwegian North Polar Expedition 1893–1896: Scientific Results, vol. 5.
• Comelli, D. et al. (2016). The meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun’s iron dagger blade. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 51, 1301–1309.
• Moore, K. L., Persaud, T. V. N. & Torchia, M. G. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Philadelphia: Elsevier (multiple editions).
• Moore, K. L. & Azzindani, A. A. (1983). The Developing Human… with Islamic Additions. Jeddah: Dar al-Qiblah.
• Stevens, N. M. (1905). Studies in Spermatogenesis. Carnegie Institution of Washington.
• Sinclair, A. H. et al. (1990). A gene from the human sex-determining region encodes a protein with homology to a conserved DNA-binding motif. Nature 346, 240–244.
• Galton, F. (1892). Finger Prints. London: Macmillan.
• von Frisch, K. (1967). The Dance Language and Orientation of Bees. Harvard University Press.

#History of science in Islam

• Sabra, A. I. (tr.) (1989). The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. London: Warburg Institute.
• Rashed, R. (ed.) (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. 3 vols. London: Routledge.
• Saliba, G. (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. MIT Press.
• Ragep, F. J. (2001). Ṭūsī and Copernicus: the Earth’s motion in context. Science in Context 14, 145–163.
• al-Khalili, J. (2011). The House of Wisdom: How Arabic Science Saved Ancient Knowledge and Gave Us the Renaissance. Penguin.